A2 Language - Language Change

Task 1


Banter:
Definition of banter in English:
noun
[mass noun]

The playful and friendly exchange of teasing remarks:

there was much good-natured banter

Bitch Face
Definition of bitch face in English:
noun
informal

(Typically with reference to a woman) a scowling facial expression, especially as the natural cast of a person’s features:

I have a bitch face too! That’s why people talk to my friends first instead of me!there’s no reason to be rude and put on a bitch face when someone’s just being friendly

Wine O'clock
Definition of wine o'clock in English:
 noun
humorous

An appropriate time of day for starting to drink wine:

I just checked my watch and it’s definitely wine o’clock

Butt-Dial
Definition of butt-dial in English:
 verb (butt-dials, butt-dialling, butt-dialled; US butt-dials, butt-dialing, butt-dialed)
[with object]

Inadvertently call (someone) on a mobile phone in one’s rear trouser pocket, as a result of pressure being accidentally applied to a button or buttons on the phone:

I have had several people butt-dial me, from former girlfriends to my brother

Selfie Stick

Definition of selfie stick in English:

noun

A device in the form of a rod on which a camera or smartphone may be mounted, enabling the person holding it to take a photograph of themselves from a wider angle than if holding the camera or smartphone in their hand:

some concert venues have banned selfie sticks over fears they block the view of the stage

Bae

noun

US informal

A person’s boyfriend or girlfriend (often as a form of address):

I’m going to see my bae [as name]: Bae just made me tacoswhat’s wrong, bae?

Duck Face

Definition of duck face in English:

noun

informal

An exaggerated pouting expression in which the lips are thrust outwards, typically made by a person posing for a photograph: the pop star pursed her lips into a duck face in one shot [as modifier]: her duck face selfies

Fisho

Definition of fisho in English:

 noun

(plural fishos) Australian /NZ informal

A person who catches or sells fish: the local fishos have dropped off the best of last night’s catch

Youtuber
Definition of YouTuber in English:
 noun

A frequent user of the video-sharing website YouTube, especially someone who produces and appears in videos on the site: we’ve been seeing top YouTubers getting TV deals over the last couple of years

Cat Café

Definition of cat cafe in English:

noun

A cafe or similar establishment where people pay to interact with cats housed on the premises: she was one of many waiting in line this morning for the opening of North America’s first pop-up cat café

Task 2


Prescriptivism
Strongly Against Language Change
Definition: The attitude or belief that one variety of a language is superior to others and should be promoted as such. An ardent promoter of prescriptivism is called a prescriptivist or stickler.
A key aspect of traditional grammar, prescriptivism is characterized by a concern for "good," "proper," or "correct" usage. Contrast with descriptivism.
Strong believers in rules of grammar and think that the system should be closely followed.


Descriptivism
For Language Change
Definition: A non-judgmental approach to language that focuses on how it is actually spoken and written. Contrast with prescriptivism.
People who understand the rules of grammar but are open to new ways of language and playing around with these rules and discovering new ways of rewriting the English language.


Synchronic
Definition of synchronic in English:
adjective

Concerned with something, especially a language, as it exists at one point in time:

synchronic linguistics

The study of language given at a certain time. Current language change.

Task 3

John McWhorter TED Talk - Prescriptivist

John Humphrys- Prescriptivist

John Sutherland on Texting- Prescriptivists

David Crystal on Language - Descriptive

Introduction To English A2 Coursework

I have chosen to investigate gender within different forms of advertisement. I have collected a variety of several resources which vary from transcripts, posters, web pages and tweets which are specific to either male or females. I have found the corresponding sources for each gendered advertisement. For example, I have randomly selected a number of tweets from the Topshop twitter account and then repeated this but for the Topshop twitter account so I am able to compare the language used within the texts which are about the same product but just different gendered based. I am very interested in this as I previously investigated women’s body image in the media for my AS coursework for English language. When I was researching this topic, I stumbled across a lot of gender comparisons which I became very interested in. Therefore I have chosen to research this topic for my A2 investigation. The theorist I will be using include Lakoff's deficit theory, Janet Holmes’s politeness theory, Tannen's difference theory, Zimmerman and West's dominance theory and Koenraad Kuiper's theory based upon male insults. I feel that each of these theories apply to my investigation well and all link together in some form meaning i will be able to evaluate each of my sources in depth and analyse them using several theories rather than just one. Also some of the theories oppose each other meaning that if one of my sources doesn’t link with one theory and proves it wrong, I will be able to use another theory to back this up.

5 Theories For Coursework

1. Lakoff 1975 - Deficit Theory

 

Says that women's language appeared to be deficient to the male norm.
Language differences socially constructed rather than biological.
Claims that women:

Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”,

Use polite forms: “Would you mind...”,“I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.

Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?”

Use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable,

Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear enunciation.

Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often.

Have a special lexicon/ more colour terms: women use more words for things

Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty.  “What school do you attend? Eton College?”

Use “wh-” imperatives: “Why don't you open the door?”

Speak less frequently

Overuse qualifiers: “I Think that...”

Apologise more:  “I'm sorry, but I think that...”

Use modal constructions: (can, would, should, ought - “Should we turn up the heat?”)

Use indirect commands and requests: “My, isn't it cold in here?”

Use more intensifiers: especially so and very - “I am so glad you came!”

I will be using Lakoffs Deficit Theory in my coursework as I feel that this theory fits perfect with the comparison of language within adverts as I will be able to identify whether this theory applies to all adverts or if any adverts challenge this. I may be able to show that this theory is now dated and that language has changed to be more equal between genders.


2. Janet Holmes - Politeness Theory

Opposes Lakoffs theory:
Suggested tag questions were used to maintain discussion / to be polite trying to co-operate.
Use of hedges and fillers not markers of indecision but for other reasons like to intensify the force of an expression for emphasis/power

 

She says that women use more positively orientated politeness and that men use more negatively orientated politeness.

Men use language as a tool to give and obtain information ( also referred to as the referential function of language )

Women use language as a means of keeping in touch ( also known as the social function )

Women;
- Pay and receive more compliments.
- Regard compliments as positive and affective politeness devices
Men;
- Tend to consider compliments as less positive than women do.
- Often see compliments as face threatening or at least not as unambiguous in intentions.
The hypothesis is that women use compliments to build connections, while men use compliments to make evaluative judgments.

I will be using Janet Holmes Politeness theory to back up my point if the adverts oppose Lakoffs theory which I feel it will do as I think that Lakoffs theory is very dated and will not apply to all of the adverts. I will then use this theory to be able to argue that the reason they are using hedges for example is to actually intensify their expression which means I can then link power in to highlight the difference in gender and how it is affecting all aspects.

3. Tannen 1990 - The Difference Theory

Status v. support

Men use conversation and speech to build status, whereas for women the world is a network of connections, and that they use language to seek and offer support

Advice v. understanding

Women seek comfort and sympathy for their problems, whilst men will seek a solution to the problem.

Information v. feelings

Men's conversations are message-oriented, based upon communicating information. For women, conversation is much more important for building relationships and strengthening social links.

Orders v. proposals

Men will use direct imperatives ("close the door", "switch on the light"). Women encourage the use of superpolite forms ("let's", "would you mind if ...?").

Conflict v. compromise

Women avoid conflict in language at all costs, and instead attempt to resolve disagreements without any direct confrontation, to maintain positive connection and rapport. Men are more likely to use confrontation as a way of resolving differences and thereby negotiating status.

Independence v. intimacy

Men favour independence, while women are more likely to seek intimacy. E.g. husband making a decision without consulting his wife. Doesn't want to feel a loss of independence that would come from saying, "Let me consult this with my wife first." Women like to demonstrate that they have to consult with their partner, as this is seen to be proof of the intimacy of the relationship.

 

I will be using this theorist within my investigation on language and gender as I feel that this is a theory which covers most situations and will apply to most of the adverts quite easily. In addition, this theory doesn't focus on just one gender, but actually looks at both equally which means I will be able to use this theory for both genders when comparing the language use and the reason the different types of language is being used.

 

4. Zimmerman and West - The Dominance Theory

Focus on ways which men control mix-sex conversations.
96% of interruptions made by men.
Men do not allow women to take control by applying constraints - interruptions.

Investigation:
The subjects of the recording were white, middle class and under 35.
Zimmerman and West based their research upon 31 segments of conversations.
They reported that in 11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions, but women only two.
Zimmerman and West conclude that, since men interrupt more often, then they are dominating or attempting to do so
Evaluation:
Beattie goes on to show: "Why do interruptions necessarily reflect dominance? Can interruptions not arise from other sources? Do some interruptions not reflect interest and involvement?"

I will be using this theory for the transcripts I have created from some adverts which I have found that highlight the difference in language. I will be able to see the difference in conversation and see the level of interruptions used by men and women. I will be able to investigate whether this theory is true and will be able to link with the other theories like Tannens where it is highlighted that men often use forms of aggression like interruptions to show their control cause some form of conflict.

5. Koenraad Kuiper 1991 - Male Insults

Studied all male talk within a all-male rugby team.
Men use insults to express a friendship rather than politness.
Found in all male talk used insults to express solidarity.

I will be using this in my investigation to see if there are any insults or negative language used in the adverts for men or women so I can prove if this theory is correct or incorrect. Although in some adverts, they are not having a conversation, i will be able to evaluate how the narrator speaks to the audience and if they insult anyone.

Style model article

http://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2014/oct/30/-sp-are-topshops-mannequins-too-skinny

Are Topshop's mannequins too skinny?

The high-street retailer is at the centre of a social media storm after a customer tweeted a picture of one of its dummies standing next to a size 8-10 customer

If catwalk models are regularly criticised for being underweight, it is now their instore counterparts – mannequins – in the firing line. This week, Topshop customer Becky Hopper tweeted a picture of her friend (size 8-10) next to a mannequin with exaggeratedly long, skinny legs. Retweeted over 6,000 times, it has seen the high street store accused of promoting poor body image.

Since the Tweet – which was sent with the hashtags #Topshop#poorbodyimage#irresponsible #fashion #highstreet – went viral, Hopper’s account has been flooded with similar complaints about skinny mannequins at other high street stores. This follows comparable issues at Primark and the storm around La Perla’s mannequins in May this year – the lingerie store displayed mannequins with visible ribs and another Twitter outcry ensued. The mannequins have since been removed.

As representations of women, mannequins are inevitably part of the debate around fashion and body image and reflect the zeitgeist’s idea of what a woman’s body should look like. In Venezuela, for example, mannequins’ shape have changed in response to the exaggerated ideals of beauty promoted in a country where a plastic surgery-honed physique is the ideal. In the UK, most high street stores use models that replicate a size eight or 10 and an impressive height, around 6ft. The average size of a British woman, on the other hand, is closer to a size 16 and stands at 163cm (5ft 4in).

There have been efforts to address this disparity in recent years. Debenhams began using size 16 models in 2013, a move that was met with praise from Equalities Minister Jo Swinson, as a step towards “celebrating our diverse society” and reflecting the demand for more realistic representations of women. A study by Cambridge University in 2012 even claimed there is evidence that larger mannequins will shift more units – as women are more likely to buy clothes when they are advertised or displayed on “women” a similar size to them.

Many shops would argue that mannequins aren’t living, breathing idealisations of women. While extremely realistic mannequins exist, the majority are rather more abstract, often featuring rectangular hands and no heads. Sure enough, Topshop’s statement on the Twitter storm – released on Thursday – said that Topshop had long “made it a priority to showcase a healthy size image”, adding: “The mannequin in question has been used in stores the past four years and is based on a standard UK size 10. The overall height, at 187cm, is taller than the average girl and the form is a stylised one to have more impact in store and create a visual focus. Mannequins are made from solid fibreglass, so in order for clothing to fit, the form of the mannequins needs to be of certain dimensions to allow clothing to be put on and removed; this is therefore not meant to be a representation of the average female body.”

In the age of online shopping, the cultural influence of dummies in bricks-and-mortar stores is arguably waning – but the debates continue apace. Even those who have sought to promote positive body image have come under fire. Alongside the praise for the Debenhams size 16 mannequins, for example, came warnings from Chief Medical Officer Dame Sally Davies that larger shop dummies were “normalising” being overweight. Yesterday, Hopper was moved to write a blog explaining that she had no intention of “body-shaming skinny girls”, in response to angry messages online. As ever – when it comes to women and body image and the great talking shop of Twitter – it’s impossible to win.

The Woman who Walked into Doors - Analysis

This short story includes imperative sentences such as ''Ask me about it'' and ''Look at the burns'' to mirror how desperate she is feeling as she is begging the nurses to question how she obtained the injuries. The desperation is due to the little love and care she has recieved as a result of her abusive relationship she has been experiencing.  As she is demanding the nurses to ask her, it shows how shw wants help immedatley but she is terrified to admit what she is going through incase her partner dsicovers what she has told them.

Additionally, the adjectives used to desribe her injuries are also metaphorically included to mirror how her relationship is completley destroyed wiht no hope in sight. For example ''broken'' ''loose'' and ''cracked'' are all used to describe the state of her body as a result of the physical abuse she has had to encounter. It is also used to simply prove how she is feeling because of the injuries as her body is no longer how it used to be.

Also, she includes rhetorical questions such as ''what about the burns on my hands?'' ''the missing hair?'' and ''the teeth?'' to provok the nurses to ask her about her traumas. It is also used to question the nurses about their ability as she thinks it is absurd that they haven't noticed the agony she is going through, This could also lead to her becoming increasingly depressed as she may start to believe no one is concerned about her or cares for her well-being.

She also shows how disconnected she feels from other people by using various pronouns such as ''she'' ''they'' and ''he''. However, she may be using these pronounsto be protecting their idenitity as she could feel fearful that the man abusing her will discover what she has been thinking and will continue to disfigue her body. She may be referring to her partner as ''he'' instead of their name as she feels obligated to protect them although she wants to get away from him.

She includes several concrete nouns such as ''hospital'' ''nurse'' and ''clinic'' to emphisise the only things real in her life are related to pain and being in a medical area. This shows the readrer how seperate she feels from the outside world as she can only relate to the objects around her which mirror the hurt she is going through. Abstract nouns are also used to explain how she is currently feeling as ''ashamed'' and ''pain'' but she also includes how she wishes to feel in the future as she desires to be ''safe''. This would make the reader feel almost sorry for the character as she repeats how much pain she feels.

Verbs are also used to explain to the reader the abuse she encountered. Lexis such as ''pulled'' ''kicked'' and ''hit'' are all included to emphise how many types of harm she has been through and shows actually how serious the situaition she is in, actually is. All of the verbs she uses are dynamic verbs which are showing motion as she can only think of the physical side of her relationship.

Analysis of Like Dreaming, Backwards

In the opening paragraph many personal pronouns are used such as 'you' and 'you're' to immediately involve the reader. This is used to involve the reader emotionally and ensure that later on in the monologue that they will feel attached and part of the story. In addition, dashes are used for parentheses to indicate added emphasis on how serious her episodes can be. This also links the audience to the character as it shows how distant she is feeling as her thoughts are not joined together and are very complicated.

Furthermore, she used asynsetic listing to describe the various different ways she attempted to commit suicide. The use of this is to highlight her panic and desperate need for help as it speeds up the pace of the sentence which is a sign of urgency.The fact that this is used to explain the ways she has tried killing herself shows that it is a subject many people do not feel comfortable talking about.

She also uses taboo language to mirror her anger by telling the audience that suicide is not ''fucking easy''. This aggression is used to reflect how she feels towards people stereotyping suicide. She also uses a simple sentence when explaining this to link with the irritation she feels as a result of people telling her killing herself is the easy way out. Also the simple sentence makes it stick into the audiences head almost as if it is a message she needs to send to everyone to ensure that all people know just how difficult it is.

In the following paragraph, she continues to explain how she was admitted into hospital after one of her 'episodes' and describes the feeling of everyone knowing about her depression as ''refreshing''. This adjective suggests she is feeling positive and implies there may be a chance she will get better. I think this as refreshing is usually associated with something changing and becoming different so the fact she is describing how she feels using this adjective hints that her attitude towards living could possibly change. However, this is immediately proven wrong by the opening phrase ''but then'' showing that nothing has actually changed and instead things may be becoming worse,

In the last paragraph she makes her perspective of living very clear. She explains how she is ''surrounded'' by patients who have been in hospital for most of their lives. The verb 'surrounded' hints that there are lots of people suffering for the same depression she is experiencing which shows the audience just how common suicidal thoughts are and how it is something that is affecting a lot of people. In addition, she opens several of her sentences with ''and'' which shows informality and her thoughts changing rapidly. This may me because she is coming to the conclusion of death which is what most people fear which is a result in her pace increasing.

Style Model - Monolouge

Have you ever had a dream and suddenly, you realize what's happening doesn't make any sense - and you realize that you're dreaming? And you realize: if you know that you're dreaming, then you can control what's going to happen next? When I have an episode, it's exactly like that - only backwards.

The first time I tried to kill myself, I was ten. When I woke up the next morning, I was relieved. I was happy that I hadn't succeeded. I didn't tell anyone. And for a while, I was happy to be alive. But then, a year later, I tried again. I've lost count of how many times I've tried and failed. I tried to poison myself, overdose on sleeping pills, hang myself, drown myself, suffocate myself, and throw myself into traffic. Now, when I wake up after taking every sleeping pill in arm's reach and washing it down with a bottle of wine, I'm never, ever relieved. I feel trapped. I feel desperate. I feel like even more of a failure. And I have even wondered if the reason that I can't kill myself is because I'm already dead and in Hell. This is a living Hell. They say suicide is "taking the easy way out". Let me tell you: It's not that fucking easy. Your physical drive to live undermines your mind's desire to die. Your instincts to breathe are hard to overcome. You can't bear another second of misery - but your heart just refuses to stop beating. It has some nerve.

It's hard to tell the people I love that I want to die. So I spend a lot of my time and energy pretending to be normal. When I ended up in the hospital, it was almost a relief. Because I didn't have to act for anyone, anymore. I just cried all day. And no one took it personally. No one wanted to blame themselves. I could cry, and it didn't hurt anyone's feeling. The honesty was refreshing.

But then, I started to look at the other patients around me. I was surrounded by people who had been miserable their entire lives. There was an eighty-year-old woman there, who had been in and out of psych wards since she was my age. She stared into space all day, crying. And every day, she would look at me, and ask, "Why won't they just let me die?" And I didn't have an answer. And I realized: That was my future. I understood with perfect clarity that I was never going to get better. No therapy can help me. No medication can fix me. I can make everyone think I'm normal, that I'm coping, that I'm okay. But I've never been okay. I'll never be okay. I will always be one bad day away from killing myself. Until I'm dead. I spend my life trying to delay what I know is inevitable. And any day could be my last.

- Kellie Powell 

- http://notmyshoes.net/monologues/nell.html