Drop

The word 'Drop' has numerous meanings in different dictionaries. The first dictionary I researched was the "dictionary.com" website. This website provided me with 74 different definitions. The first named Drop as a noun and explained that it was "a small quantity of liquid that falls or is produced in a more or less spherical mass; a liquid globule." This was followed by a number of similar definitions including "the quantity of liquid contained in such a globule." and "a very small quantity of liquid." These definitions vary slightly but are different showing us how specific language has become and that one word can be broadened to have the same topic but specific meanings within the subject of for example - small amount of liquid.


There is a variety of definitions provided for Drop such as "an act or instance of dropping" "a small, usually spherical, piece of candy" such as lemon drop as well as "to come to an end" in the context of a matter being dropped by the police etc.


The next dictionary I researched was the Cambridge dictionary which provided the definition of Drop as a verb and described as to​fall or to ​allow something to ​fall. This is a very formal way of describing the word Drop. However, the following definition is "Drop Dead" which I believe to be quite informal, especially for the Cambridge dictionary.


In the urban dictionary, the word Drop has a number of meanings which differ from the conventional dictionary definitions. The first suggestion that is given to me is as a verb and provides the following three definitions:


1. To knock someone over, usually associated with the first hit in a fight


2. To spend (generally a lot of) money; to buy something


3. To release an album 

1700s Dictionary to Now

Dictionaries have changed from the 1700s to the present day as they were previously created by a single man names Samuel Johnson. They are now created by numerous lexicographer who add and remove words into the dictionaries that are being used and that are no longer being used in today's society. In 175, Samuel Johnson created the dictionary which took him over 8 years to complete and included 40,000 words, some of which he has created himself which are completely unrecognisable to our current English language

Examples of this include:
Deosculation : Warm Kiss
Odontalgik : Tootache

Nowadays, the dictionary is reviewed 4 times a year by the lexicographers and edited in response to the change in our English language. The OED is also online and includes features such as audio clips which allows you to hear the word if you are unsure of the pronunciation.

Another online dictionary that has been newly developed is the Urban Dictionary which is an online slang version of the current OED. The Urban dictionary allows members of the public who are not lexicographers to add words into this dictionary in which the administrators of the website will verify if the input is a valid addition.

Words such as:
Earphone Zombie
Kanye Not
Pied - are some of the words that have been added and accepted into the Urban dictionary.

Another feature of the urban dictionary is that you are able to 'like' or 'dislike' a word if you think it is correct or incorrect and should've or shouldn't have been included into the urban dictionary. This highlights the language change that has occurred over the years and how technology has influenced the way our dictionaries work as we are now able to share words through Facebook, Twitter and other social media sites in order to share new words that someone has discovered.

Jean Aitchison's Metaphors For Prescriptive Attitudes To Language Change

The Damp Spoon model highlights the apparent laziness and sloppiness over the ways language changes - such as dropping apostrophes and the subjunctive (basically all prescriptivists see change as negative). It's called this because it's similar to the laziness Aitchison felt when a damp spoon was put back into a sugar bowl.


The Crumbling Castle view treats English as a beautiful, pristine, precious building that must be preserved. Any change would be like letting the castle fall to ruin. The issue is that the language has to have been at a 'perfect' state at some point.  But this isn't true as standardisation never fully set down 'rules' (Latin rules, so again, trash) until 300 years ago.


The Infectious Disease model sees language change as an 'infection' that people can catch, in much the same way that floating germs spread disease. The issue with this is that people change their language use because they want to use the changed meanings, in order to fit in etc. In defence of the model however, it functions in much the same way as the bull's eye theory.

The Etymology of "Silly"

The word "Silly" has not always meant to be foolish. Instead, its meaning has changed a number of times from being lucky, happy, blissful or weak. Middle English refers to the varieties of the English language spoken after the Norman Conquest (1066) until the late 15th century and is the period of where the word "Silly" originated from.


Its first known use was in the 14th century. It derives from the old English word "sely" which once meant happy, lucky, blessed or blissful. This word sely had and origin of its own as was changed through its spelling several times. It first began with the the Old English word gesælig meaning"happy, fortuitous, prosperous" which is related to sæl meaning "happiness" from Proto-Germanic sæligas. Basically, all of these words  stemming from Good old english word "gesælig" , Proto-Germanic word "sæligas" , Old High German word "salig" and similar sounding words in many other ancient european languages having the root word "sel"carried the meaning of " happy, prosperous" in early periods. Soon after, the word "seely" was developed in which we have devised the word "silly" from.


However, this change from an "e" to an "I" in "seely" is very uncommon and has only happened in a limited amount of words. Although the change of the spelling "silly" hasn't changed any further, the word has still had a considerable sense of development moving from "happy" to "blessed" to "pious," to "innocent" (c. 1200), to "harmless," to "pitiable" (late 13c.), "weak" (c. 1300), to "feeble in mind, lacking in reason, foolish" (1570s). The word then went on to  mean "stunned, dazed as by a blow" (1886) in knocked silly, etc.


Silly then changed its meaning tendency toward "stunned, dazed as by a blow" (1886) in knocked silly, etc. Silly season in journalism slang is from 1861 (August and September, when newspapers compensate for a lack of hard news by filling up with trivial stories).

A2 Language - Language Change

Task 1


Banter:
Definition of banter in English:
noun
[mass noun]

The playful and friendly exchange of teasing remarks:

there was much good-natured banter

Bitch Face
Definition of bitch face in English:
noun
informal

(Typically with reference to a woman) a scowling facial expression, especially as the natural cast of a person’s features:

I have a bitch face too! That’s why people talk to my friends first instead of me!there’s no reason to be rude and put on a bitch face when someone’s just being friendly

Wine O'clock
Definition of wine o'clock in English:
 noun
humorous

An appropriate time of day for starting to drink wine:

I just checked my watch and it’s definitely wine o’clock

Butt-Dial
Definition of butt-dial in English:
 verb (butt-dials, butt-dialling, butt-dialled; US butt-dials, butt-dialing, butt-dialed)
[with object]

Inadvertently call (someone) on a mobile phone in one’s rear trouser pocket, as a result of pressure being accidentally applied to a button or buttons on the phone:

I have had several people butt-dial me, from former girlfriends to my brother

Selfie Stick

Definition of selfie stick in English:

noun

A device in the form of a rod on which a camera or smartphone may be mounted, enabling the person holding it to take a photograph of themselves from a wider angle than if holding the camera or smartphone in their hand:

some concert venues have banned selfie sticks over fears they block the view of the stage

Bae

noun

US informal

A person’s boyfriend or girlfriend (often as a form of address):

I’m going to see my bae [as name]: Bae just made me tacoswhat’s wrong, bae?

Duck Face

Definition of duck face in English:

noun

informal

An exaggerated pouting expression in which the lips are thrust outwards, typically made by a person posing for a photograph: the pop star pursed her lips into a duck face in one shot [as modifier]: her duck face selfies

Fisho

Definition of fisho in English:

 noun

(plural fishos) Australian /NZ informal

A person who catches or sells fish: the local fishos have dropped off the best of last night’s catch

Youtuber
Definition of YouTuber in English:
 noun

A frequent user of the video-sharing website YouTube, especially someone who produces and appears in videos on the site: we’ve been seeing top YouTubers getting TV deals over the last couple of years

Cat Café

Definition of cat cafe in English:

noun

A cafe or similar establishment where people pay to interact with cats housed on the premises: she was one of many waiting in line this morning for the opening of North America’s first pop-up cat café

Task 2


Prescriptivism
Strongly Against Language Change
Definition: The attitude or belief that one variety of a language is superior to others and should be promoted as such. An ardent promoter of prescriptivism is called a prescriptivist or stickler.
A key aspect of traditional grammar, prescriptivism is characterized by a concern for "good," "proper," or "correct" usage. Contrast with descriptivism.
Strong believers in rules of grammar and think that the system should be closely followed.


Descriptivism
For Language Change
Definition: A non-judgmental approach to language that focuses on how it is actually spoken and written. Contrast with prescriptivism.
People who understand the rules of grammar but are open to new ways of language and playing around with these rules and discovering new ways of rewriting the English language.


Synchronic
Definition of synchronic in English:
adjective

Concerned with something, especially a language, as it exists at one point in time:

synchronic linguistics

The study of language given at a certain time. Current language change.

Task 3

John McWhorter TED Talk - Prescriptivist

John Humphrys- Prescriptivist

John Sutherland on Texting- Prescriptivists

David Crystal on Language - Descriptive

Introduction To English A2 Coursework

I have chosen to investigate gender within different forms of advertisement. I have collected a variety of several resources which vary from transcripts, posters, web pages and tweets which are specific to either male or females. I have found the corresponding sources for each gendered advertisement. For example, I have randomly selected a number of tweets from the Topshop twitter account and then repeated this but for the Topshop twitter account so I am able to compare the language used within the texts which are about the same product but just different gendered based. I am very interested in this as I previously investigated women’s body image in the media for my AS coursework for English language. When I was researching this topic, I stumbled across a lot of gender comparisons which I became very interested in. Therefore I have chosen to research this topic for my A2 investigation. The theorist I will be using include Lakoff's deficit theory, Janet Holmes’s politeness theory, Tannen's difference theory, Zimmerman and West's dominance theory and Koenraad Kuiper's theory based upon male insults. I feel that each of these theories apply to my investigation well and all link together in some form meaning i will be able to evaluate each of my sources in depth and analyse them using several theories rather than just one. Also some of the theories oppose each other meaning that if one of my sources doesn’t link with one theory and proves it wrong, I will be able to use another theory to back this up.

5 Theories For Coursework

1. Lakoff 1975 - Deficit Theory

 

Says that women's language appeared to be deficient to the male norm.
Language differences socially constructed rather than biological.
Claims that women:

Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”,

Use polite forms: “Would you mind...”,“I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.

Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?”

Use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable,

Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear enunciation.

Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often.

Have a special lexicon/ more colour terms: women use more words for things

Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty.  “What school do you attend? Eton College?”

Use “wh-” imperatives: “Why don't you open the door?”

Speak less frequently

Overuse qualifiers: “I Think that...”

Apologise more:  “I'm sorry, but I think that...”

Use modal constructions: (can, would, should, ought - “Should we turn up the heat?”)

Use indirect commands and requests: “My, isn't it cold in here?”

Use more intensifiers: especially so and very - “I am so glad you came!”

I will be using Lakoffs Deficit Theory in my coursework as I feel that this theory fits perfect with the comparison of language within adverts as I will be able to identify whether this theory applies to all adverts or if any adverts challenge this. I may be able to show that this theory is now dated and that language has changed to be more equal between genders.


2. Janet Holmes - Politeness Theory

Opposes Lakoffs theory:
Suggested tag questions were used to maintain discussion / to be polite trying to co-operate.
Use of hedges and fillers not markers of indecision but for other reasons like to intensify the force of an expression for emphasis/power

 

She says that women use more positively orientated politeness and that men use more negatively orientated politeness.

Men use language as a tool to give and obtain information ( also referred to as the referential function of language )

Women use language as a means of keeping in touch ( also known as the social function )

Women;
- Pay and receive more compliments.
- Regard compliments as positive and affective politeness devices
Men;
- Tend to consider compliments as less positive than women do.
- Often see compliments as face threatening or at least not as unambiguous in intentions.
The hypothesis is that women use compliments to build connections, while men use compliments to make evaluative judgments.

I will be using Janet Holmes Politeness theory to back up my point if the adverts oppose Lakoffs theory which I feel it will do as I think that Lakoffs theory is very dated and will not apply to all of the adverts. I will then use this theory to be able to argue that the reason they are using hedges for example is to actually intensify their expression which means I can then link power in to highlight the difference in gender and how it is affecting all aspects.

3. Tannen 1990 - The Difference Theory

Status v. support

Men use conversation and speech to build status, whereas for women the world is a network of connections, and that they use language to seek and offer support

Advice v. understanding

Women seek comfort and sympathy for their problems, whilst men will seek a solution to the problem.

Information v. feelings

Men's conversations are message-oriented, based upon communicating information. For women, conversation is much more important for building relationships and strengthening social links.

Orders v. proposals

Men will use direct imperatives ("close the door", "switch on the light"). Women encourage the use of superpolite forms ("let's", "would you mind if ...?").

Conflict v. compromise

Women avoid conflict in language at all costs, and instead attempt to resolve disagreements without any direct confrontation, to maintain positive connection and rapport. Men are more likely to use confrontation as a way of resolving differences and thereby negotiating status.

Independence v. intimacy

Men favour independence, while women are more likely to seek intimacy. E.g. husband making a decision without consulting his wife. Doesn't want to feel a loss of independence that would come from saying, "Let me consult this with my wife first." Women like to demonstrate that they have to consult with their partner, as this is seen to be proof of the intimacy of the relationship.

 

I will be using this theorist within my investigation on language and gender as I feel that this is a theory which covers most situations and will apply to most of the adverts quite easily. In addition, this theory doesn't focus on just one gender, but actually looks at both equally which means I will be able to use this theory for both genders when comparing the language use and the reason the different types of language is being used.

 

4. Zimmerman and West - The Dominance Theory

Focus on ways which men control mix-sex conversations.
96% of interruptions made by men.
Men do not allow women to take control by applying constraints - interruptions.

Investigation:
The subjects of the recording were white, middle class and under 35.
Zimmerman and West based their research upon 31 segments of conversations.
They reported that in 11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions, but women only two.
Zimmerman and West conclude that, since men interrupt more often, then they are dominating or attempting to do so
Evaluation:
Beattie goes on to show: "Why do interruptions necessarily reflect dominance? Can interruptions not arise from other sources? Do some interruptions not reflect interest and involvement?"

I will be using this theory for the transcripts I have created from some adverts which I have found that highlight the difference in language. I will be able to see the difference in conversation and see the level of interruptions used by men and women. I will be able to investigate whether this theory is true and will be able to link with the other theories like Tannens where it is highlighted that men often use forms of aggression like interruptions to show their control cause some form of conflict.

5. Koenraad Kuiper 1991 - Male Insults

Studied all male talk within a all-male rugby team.
Men use insults to express a friendship rather than politness.
Found in all male talk used insults to express solidarity.

I will be using this in my investigation to see if there are any insults or negative language used in the adverts for men or women so I can prove if this theory is correct or incorrect. Although in some adverts, they are not having a conversation, i will be able to evaluate how the narrator speaks to the audience and if they insult anyone.